Although much is known about the general taxonomy and biology of earthworms, knowledge about their impact on soils, their interactions with other soil organisms and the influence of farming practices on their populations is increasing only slowly.

Earthworms are usually the most abundant soil animals in agricultural soils. They are known to improve physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. Together with soil microorganisms they have a great potential to enhance soil fertility.

Apple scab is the primary fungal disease in apple cultivation affecting entire harvests as well as the following year's production. The damage can occur both in the plant and during storage. In organic farming, scab control is mostly carried out using precautionary measures. Plant protection products are used for direct control before the onset of rain and during spore germination as "scab stop".

This factsheet introduces the integrated ecological approach to organic pest and disease management, how to best prevent problems and direct control methods. The information is based on long-term experiments and on-farm research conducted in the scope of three projects across different countries in Africa, as well as Bolivia and India.
The products are intended for use by African farmers, advisors, teachers and students.

Over 750 million olive trees are cultivated worldwide, 95% of which are in the Mediterranean region. Several insects, pathogens and nematodes affect olive trees, threatening olive production. Both the number of pests and diseases and their frequency has increased dramatically in recent years, causing serious damage to overall EU olive production.

As the negative health and environmental effects of chemical soil fumigation become more apparent, it is critical to devise safe, alternative methods of soil fumigation. Organic growers constantly struggle with weed control and need innovative, chemical‐free weed management techniques.